Ringkasan Materi

Summary 

The Sound Pattern of Language

1.   Phonology

Is essentially the description of the system and the patterns of speech sounds in a language. Example: tar, star.

2.   Phonemes

Each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language.

Example: fat/vat.

3.   Phones and allophones

Phones are phonetic units and appear in square brackets. While allophones is all of which are versions of one phoneme.

Example: word “star” but say “tar”.

4.   Minimal pairs and sets

Is phonemic distinctions in a language can be tasted via pairs and sets of word.

Example: fan-van.

           5.   Phonotactics

Exercise involving sets also allows us to see that there are definite patterns in the types of sound combinations permitted in a language.

Example: I think Bubba is one very ignorant guy.

           6.   Syllables

Is contain a vowel or vowel-like sound, including diphthongs.

Example: green (CCVC).

a.    Consonant clusters

Is both the onset and coda can consist of more than one consonant.

            7.   Coarticulation effects

            The process of making one sound almost at the same as the next sound, such as speech isn’t normally.

a.    Assimilation

Is two sound segments occur in sequence and some aspect of one segment is taken or “copied” by the other.

Example: you and me [juǝnmi].

b.   Elision

The process of not pronouncing a sound segment that might be present in the deliberately careful pronunciation of a word in isolation.

 Example: Friendship [frɛnʃɪp]

c.    Normal speech is try to come to an understanding of the regularities and patterns.

Morphology

1.   Morphology

Is analyzes elements in the form of a linguistics message.

Example: I will love you.

2.   Morphemes

Is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.

 Example: talks, talked, talking.

a.       Free and bound morphemes

Free morphemes are morphemes that can stand by themselves as single word, such as open, close.

Bound morphemes are can’t normally stand alone, such as –ed, -er.

b.      Lexical and functional morphemes

Lexical is free morpheme, such as girl, boy.

While functional morphemes are other type of free morpheme, such as and, then.

c.       Derivational and inflectional morphemes

Derivational is makes a word of a different grammatical category from the stem, such as goodness.

While inflectional is indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word, such as appears as –s’ (those boys’ bag)

            3.   Morphological description

Is the change grammatical category of a word.

 Example: teach + -er → teacher.

4.   Morphs and allomorphs

Morph is the phonetic realization of a morpheme, such as cat + -s → cats.

While allomorphs are the various pronunciation of a morpheme, such as sheep is actually “sheep + Ø” → sheep.

5.   Other language

Different pattern occur in other language.

a.       Kanuri is a language spoken in Negeria.

Example: length [nəmkurugu] that long [kurugu]

b.      Ganda is a language spoken in Uganda. Example:

Girl [omuwala]» Girls [abawala]

c.       Ilocana is a language of the Philippines. Example:

head [úlo]» heads [ulúlo]

d.      Tagalog is another language spoken in the Philippines.

Example: read [basa], read! [bumasa] 

Syntax

1.      Syntax

Is the set of rules that are considered to be correctly structured programs in that language. Examples: near London, with you.

            a.    Deep and surface structure

An abstract level of structural organization in which all the element determining structural interpretation are represented.

Example:  she write letter and who write letter?

           b.   Structural ambiguity

The structural distinction between these underlying representations.

Example: small boys and girls can be small boys and (small)girls.

           c.    Recursion

Is the process of repeating items.

Example: the gun [on the table],[near the window] so the gun on the table near the window.

2.      Tree diagrams

The One of the most common ways to create a visual representation of syntax structure.

3.      Symbols used to in syntactic analysis

Are used as abbreviations for syntactic categories.

Example: “S” (= sentence)

4.      Phrase structure rules

The rules that the structure of a phrase of a specific type will consist of one or more constituents in a particular order.

 Example: NP → Art N

5.      Lexical rules

The specify which word can be used when rewrite constituents, such as N = Noun (Mary or George).

6.      Movement rules

Move one part of the structure to a different position.

Example: I see her and do you see her?

7.      Back to recursion

The simple phrase structure rules listed earlier.

Example: Mary help George become I knew that [Mary help George].

a.    Complement phrases is a complementizer.

Example: John believed that Cathy knew that Mary helped George.

Semantics

1.      Meaning

Is the study meaning in language.

Example: needle (thin).

2.      Semantics features

Analyzing the conceptual components of word meaning.  

Example: (NP)The hamburger (v)ate (NP)the boy.

3.      Semantic roles

Fulfill within the situation described by a sentence.

Example: The boy kicked the ball.

a.    Agent and theme

Agent is performs the actions, such as The boy. Theme is affected by action, such as The ball.

b.   Instrument and experiencer 

Instrument is agent uses another entity, such as The boy cut the rope with an old razor. Experiencer is designate an entity as the person who has feeling, such as The boy feels sad.

c.    Location, source and goal

Where’re entity is (on the table), the source (from Chicago) and the goal(to New Orleans).

4.      Lexical relations

Is characterizing the meaning of word, in term of its relationship to other word.

a.    Synonymy

Two or more words with very closely related meanings.

Example: cab/taxi

b.   Antonymy

Two form with opposite meanings.

Example: big/small

c.    Hyponymy

The meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another.

Example: animal/dog

d.   Prototypes

The characteristics instance.

Example: sparrow, pigeon

e.    Homophones and homonyms

Homophones are different form have the same pronunciation, such  as meet/meat. Homonyms are one form (written/spoken) has two or more unrelated meaning, such as pupil(on school)-pupil(small animal).

f.    Polysemy

One form having multiple meanings that are all related by extension.

Example:  head

g.   Word play

Humorous effect.

h.   Metonymy

The relationship between words on a close connection.

Example: bottle/water

5.      Collocation

Is how often words or phrase occur.

Example: table/chair